Communications Model & Modes

One definition of listen is “to hear something with thoughtful attention: give consideration” [18]. This can include techniques like paraphrasing, where you briefly restate what has been said, and silent preparation, which focuses on quietly and attentively understanding the speaker. Listening is a key component of understanding: one cannot understand without it.

Example: “What I think you’re saying is this. Is that right?”

Goals: While it might seem passive, listening can be critical in building trust with another, especially when exploring the potential for more extensive dialogue or engagement beyond the immediate conversation. By attentively listening, participants gain a deeper understanding of whether and how to respond. For example, the person you wish to interact with may not be open or ready to discuss differences. Also, providing only factual responses might miss important emotional cues that the speaker is communicating, such as their fears or excitement [4] [5].

According to one definition, “empathy is the ability to recognize, understand, and share the thoughts and feelings of another person, animal, or fictional character” [6]. Our definition of empathy has two meanings. The first focuses on the feelings of another, where it means to experience someone else's emotions and connect with them on a deep emotional level. The second is “cognitive empathy,” also phrased as ”perspective taking.” This mode is the act of viewing a situation from the point of view of others [7]. While empathizing involves sharing of others’ emotions, perspective taking helps identify other’s intentions, needs, reactions, and behaviors.

Empathy is a way to demonstrate that you understand the feelings and thoughts of another.

Example: “I understand how you feel.”

Example: In preparing for and during a discussion, imagine yourself in the shoes of the other person. Try to visualize yourself on the other side of the table, in that role, thinking as the other.

Goals: Empathy is crucial in conflictual situations where the aim is to resolve issues or transform relationships. Research demonstrates that empathy and perspective-taking can significantly impact social and political issues, such as the debate on immigration [7]. Engaging in cognitive empathy or perspective-taking can help people to identify another person’s thoughts and points of view even though they may not agree with them. It can help reduce deadlocks in discussions and decrease discrimination. Research also supports the use of perspective-taking to reduce affective polarization on social media [8].

To notify is to simply convey facts and information to another, especially in advance of rumors spreading. A couple of ways to do this include “pre-bunking” so that people have correct information to begin with, and pointing out when authorities agree on a topic [19]. 

Example: “Most scientists agree that although many of our genes have counterparts in bananas, these aren’t necessarily made up of the same DNA sequences. The genes we “share” with bananas (20% to 50% depending on methodology) turn out to be only about 1% of our DNA. Be aware that some people try to create a false debate in order to create a high degree of uncertainty about this issue. You can read more here: …”

Goals: Notifying others of correct information offers counsel in advance can equip people with strategies to recognize and respond to rumors or inaccuracies that arise. This can make it less likely that people can be persuaded by false information later, especially in situations that are emotional or require a quick response.

To encourage healthy inquiry is to help others ask questions of the information they are reading, such as “What do other sources say?” or “What’s the evidence?” [12] Methods include engaging a third party from your network or community to help evaluate sources and check facts [10] [11].

This communication mode is not the same as being skeptical of all information. These methods are shared with others so they can inform themselves more accurately.

Example: Asking someone “What other sources confirm this for you?” can be a place to start. Encourage the person to think about the motivations and biases of the source of the information, and why they find it credible.

Example: “Imagine your uncle has just been diagnosed with a serious illness and is convinced that an obscure cure being sold online will help him. Talk to him about the struggles you’ve had figuring out what to trust in terms of health information available online. Talk to him about how frightened he must be by this diagnosis and that you will help him find the most trustworthy information.”

Goals: Being able to critically evaluate information by not immediately believing new claims is an important part of healthy inquiry. Targeted education like lateral reading instruction can improve fact-checking strategies and critical thinking skills among students [13] [14]. This communication mode encompasses a wide set of goals of information and media literacy programs. Co-verifying can build bonds with others while helping them learn how to verify; by offering to share your processes of source evaluation and fact-checking with someone else, you can help a person understand how they might replicate or practice these methods later.

To correct someone in a discussion is to show or tell someone that something is wrong as well as pointing to or explaining what is accurate. There are several ways that one might offer a correction, including by helping another person to understand an alternative explanation to their original reasoning [9]. 

Example: “Reports of deaths after taking COVID vaccines are extremely rare. CDC has more information on this: https://tinyurl.com/5epay3wn. Remember that a report doesn’t necessarily mean that vaccines caused the death. The rate of adverse events caused by vaccines is extremely low.”

Goals: The goals for this approach can vary. One goal may be to correct the speaker about a specific issue such as climate change or vaccination. Another goal might be to equip the speaker with general skills to identify inaccurate information. There might also be times when you want to make sure that others listening in on the conversation have access to correct facts.

De-escalation involves reducing tensions between individuals or groups. Techniques like using humor or listening receptively can help calm conflict or enable reconciliation. Calm receptivity allows for connection to take place.

Example: To address the stress around the pandemic, a governmental agency broadcast this message which was well-received:  

It’s been 38 minutes since we told you to wash your hands and you’ve had your hands all over your germ infested phone reading tweets. Wash your hands, wipe down your phone, and return some TP to the store. And don’t crime.

Goals: De-escalation is an overarching goal of efforts in conflict resolution or transformation [15]. De-escalation is a complex process that overlaps or includes other modes, such as listening.

Sharing one’s own story is one way that people explain their reasoning through their own personal experience of navigating a difficult decision. Even in digital spaces, telling stories about one’s own “health journey” can be an effective way to share information while also encouraging reflection [17].

Ultimately, stories connect individuals and communities in deeper ways as they learn or experience histories about one another.

Goals: Telling a story from one’s personal experience is a way to share values and also to communicate one’s own intentions, which can be helpful in building trust with others.

Caring for others brings connection through your commitment to them. Under development.

Framing your communication is aiming to counsel or convince others to change their attitudes by showing things in a particular way or “frame.”

Example: Risk can be framed through wins or losses: “You might win 5 cents” versus “you might lose 95 cents.”  

Goals: To convince another person of your perspective, you can share the way you see an issue’s problems, origins, or benefits the way you do - it’s about explaining the issue’s significance or meaning [20]. Making sure this is appropriate counsel, however, demands that you do this in a way that is open about your motives and respectful about the abilities of others to make their own decisions.

Sometimes it's beneficial to remind people of our connections to each other, such as our common goals for accuracy or shared moral values. One can try to convince or counsel another through the explicit mention of shared norms and values, emphasizing the interpersonal bonds we share.

Example: “There is a lot of misleading and false information online. Most responsible people think twice before sharing content with their friends and followers.”

Goals: In our catalog, norms and other shared values are opportunities to reflect on the social bonds that tie us together. Norms are principles of “right action binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior’ (Merriam Webster). In our catalog, norms refer to both perceived descriptive norms (what most people do) as well as injunctive norms (what one ought to do) outside of the force of law [21]. Appeals can include reminders of social value ascribed to accuracy as well as “nudges” — a non-coercive device that leads people to certain decisions — towards being respectful and open in communication [16]. Some approaches from conflict resolution may also be tagged under this tag.